Dziga Vertov and the Mechanics of Seeing

Dziga Vertov's work was cultivated within, and informed by, the sociopolitical milieu of the Soviet post-Revolutionary state of the 1920s. Contemporary Russia was consumed by the struggle of the proletariat to propound itself as the dominant class, which was ceremonially ratified by its embattled and volatile government. Within this ambiance of flux, anxiety, and instability, permeated a force of cultural and artistic currents that hungered for alternative methods of representing the contemporary world - for Dziga Vertov, this insatiable appetite manifested itself in the transformation of constructivist ideology into a distinctive cinematic language. Vertov's oeuvre encompasses the materialization of his vision of "the art of fact" (Petric, viii). He radicalized film aesthetics in opposition to previously established cinematic forms - founded upon cultural imperialism and bourgeois melodrama - consequently destroying and reconstructing the filmic apparatus itself. In his approach to editing, Dziga Vertov not only revolutionized and broadened the cinematic sphere, but also attempted to disassemble the spectator's conceptions of the perceived world; thus placing under scrutiny the notion of "seeing" itself. This paper will investigate the connections between Dziga Vertov's construction of documentary aesthetics and the spontaneous decipherment of visual codes in the process of seeing. An evaluation of the theoretical implications of "Kino-Glaz" will provide the basis for the paper, which will take under consideration the influence of the constructivist tradition and the formal techniques of Vertov's "unplayed films." A textual reading of relevant sequences from Dziga Vertov's films will be applied in accordance with the theoretical analysis.

The doctrines behind "Kino-Glaz" or "Film-Eye," encompass the theoretical premise for his treatment of the visual sphere within the cinematic apparatus. Vertov suggested that the camera plays the central role in the "assault on the visible world" (41). He identifies Kino-Glaz in various terms including: "the high-speed eye; cinema-analysis; theory of intervals; the theory of relativity on the screen," or simply, "that which the eye does not see" (Vertov, 41). According to Vertov, Kino-Glaz embodied a directional method that was capable of penetrating through external appearances in order to reveal "Zhizn Kak Ona Est" or "Life-As-It-Is" and "Zhizn'v Rasplokh" or "Life Caught Unawares" (Petric, 4). "Life-As-It-Is" refers to the ability of cinematically capturing life, as it would unfold in the present moment. Vertov's legendary film, "Man with a Movie Camera" (1929), provides numerous examples of the practical application of this approach. For instance, the shot sequences depicting busy city streets captured its hectic happenings as they occurred in a given moment. Shots of carriages sporadically passing through the frame, high-angle shots of the cars driving slowly through the traffic of the city square, and two street-cars moving in opposite directions from each other, are some of the occurrences that transpired before the camera and would have inevitably done so despite its absence. Another example can be identified within the shots at the Divorce Registration Office. While her husband laughs, the woman from the third couple demonstrates obvious discomfort with the presence of the camera by hiding her face behind her purse. This nuance implies a level of immediacy and spontaneity within the filming process, that operates in consistence with the theoretical premise behind the "Life-As-It-Is" footage. The term "Life Caught Unawares" describes the recorded moments when the subject is surprised or provoked by the presence of the camera. Vertov clarified that the intention behind "filming life unawares" should not be for sake of the "unaware" but in order to "show people without masks�to catch them through the eye of the camera in a moment when they are not acting, to read their thoughts, laid bare by the camera" (41). In "Man with a Movie Camera", this is memorably achieved during the shot sequence of the homeless boy awaking. Initially he is captured in a medium shot, stretching and scratching his body in complete obliviousness of the voyeuristic imposition of the camera. The following close-up shot documents his genuine reaction of surprise upon the realization of the camera's presence. He begins to laugh and shyly turns away his face, before lowering his hat over his eyes. The two approaches constitute an attempt to show "the truth on the screen - Film-truth" (Vertov, 42). Moreover, since one's notion of "truth"; is dependent on the intricacies of perceptive decoding, the "eye" becomes the central focus of cogitation as the mechanism responsible for such processes. The "eye" in the term "Kino-Eye" represents the movie camera, "which has the wonderful capacity to see, to capture what it sees, and to reproduce it as it saw it" (Vertov qtd. in Tsivian, 99). The ability to view life in its raw form is the process of seeing the essence of external reality, which the human eye is incapable of registering due to its habitual and prejudiced process of selection. Dziga Vertov asserted that the degree of authenticity that is accessible to the movie camera is highly superior to that of other demonstrators of ordinary life, such as paining and literature; therefore, his manifestoes demanded that the cinema divorce itself from other mediums. Vertov elaborated by suggesting that the capabilities of the camera extend beyond those of the human eye, as a mechanism for optical decoding. He proposed that: Our eyes see very badly and very little. And so people invented the microscope, in order to see invisible phenomena. And so people invented the telescope, in order to see and study distant unknown worlds. And so people invented the movie camera, in order to penetrate more deeply in to the seen world, in order to study and note down visual phenomena, in order not to forget what is happening and what will be essential to take in to account in the future (Vertov qtd. in Tsivian, 102). This line of reasoning not only implies that the camera is one of many mechanical tools devised to refine and cultivate the capabilities of the human sight but that it processed the exceptional capacity to perforate through the perceived world onto the realm of the imperceptible. The above statement bridges two seemingly conflicting suppositions into a conjectural whole. By mobilizing the technological mechanism of the camera, Vertov applies a scientific methodology to the philosophical processes of unmasking "truth." Furthermore, considering that the notion of "truth" is unavoidably subjective Vertov's camera reveals a cinematized abstraction of a single moment. His, Three Songs About Lenin: Leader of the Oppressed Peoples of the World (1924), includes a shot sequence about a young Muslim woman whose appearance can be understood as the metaphorical embodiment of the ordinary processes of human perception. The woman is completely veiled in fabrics, to the point where her eyes are concealed and her identity is unrecognizable. This shot cuts to a title-card, "I led a blind life, in ignorance and darkness�but a ray of truth began to shine." While the film glorifies Lenin as her hero, within the cinematic sphere Vertov symbolically replaces the political figure and assumes the role of the liberator. Through the substitution of the camera - the "perfectible eye," for the human eye � "the imperfect one," Vertov captured the "feel of the world" (Vertov, xxv), and enabled the viewer to temporarily abandon her/his misperceived conceptions of "truth." While the application of the theoretical doctrines is most famously encapsulated in, The Man with a Movie Camera, a reflection on the film, Kino-Glaz (1924) is invaluable to the analysis of visual construction and its decipherment in Vertov's work. He suggested that this film functions "to open the eyes of the masses to the connection between the social and visual phenomena interpreted by the camera" (Vertov 35). Its aesthetic fabric is interlaced with thematic and ideological undercurrents that provide a valuable topic for investigation on two relevant dimensions. The first is characterized by what it can reveal about a particular Soviet experience, and the second addresses the role of the cinematic medium in redirecting the spectator's processes of optical decoding. As it pertains to the former, in consistence with Vertov's other work, the film's ideological implications are overtly Leninist and pro-Revolutionary. He asserted that this film "prepares the theme of creative labor against a background of class consciousness" (Vertov, 34). In regards to the latter - the examination of the film's aesthetics in accordance with the central subject of "seeing" � it is imperative to consider how point-of-view is applied. While in the traditional documentary film point-of-view usually resides in the third person, with the filmmaker or the cameraman, here it resided with the camera itself. Through the employment of title-cards, the camera is addressed as the illuminator of the unperceivable. The medium itself is treated as an individual, as the camera is endowed with human capacities and entrusted into the directorial role. The spectator temporarily adopts its omnipotent eye, which consequently assists her/him in the process of interpreting the surrounding world. Similarly to the Chinese magician, Chan-Gi-War, who tricks the thoroughly amused children within the second reel, Vertov questions the spectator's commitment to their conceptions about the evidentiary quality of appearances. He achieves this by emphasizing the multifaceted capacities of the cinematic apparatus, which become apparent through the various sequences of moving trains, bulls, and divers, captured in reverse motion. The preceding title-cards to many of such sequences proudly declare that "Kino-Glaz moves time backwards" - a claim that is affirmed through the depiction of the medium's technological sophistication. Furthermore, by presenting the events in reverse of their temporal progression, the cinematic apparatus "discloses the origins of objects and of bread" (Vertov, 34). In doing so, it provides visual evidence to the workers that they are the creators of all these things and that these objects consequently belong to them (Vertov, 34). With the progression of Kino-Glaz, Vertov�s exploration of the
interconnection between film aesthetics and the spontaneous decipherment of
visual codes intensifies through a visual insistence on the prevalence of the
�eye.� This becomes apparent within the firth reel, which begins with a
montage sequence that intercuts several shots of homeless people and cocaine
addicts waking up. The sequence includes an extreme close-up shot of a
homeless boy�s eyes, which stare into the camera and penetrate through the
voyeuristic eyes of the spectators. Such emphasis on this optical organ
becomes most prevalent during the shot sequences at the insane asylum in
Moscow, where the camera frames the actions of each patient individually.
This nuance is significant for its emphasis on her/his subjective perception
of �truth.� As each inmate proclaims a set of pre-revolutionary convictions,
the shot cuts to an extreme close-up of her/his eyes. This aesthetic dynamic
insists that their insanity derives from a defective conception of �reality,�
which is a product of their flawed eyes and must be altered through the
employment of a new mechanism for sight, in the form of the Kino-Glaz. Vertov
suggested that through the deployment of this apparatus �the eyes of children
and adults, the educated as well as the uneducated, are opening, as it were,
for the first time� (39). �Millions of workers, having recovered their sight,
are beginning to doubt the necessity of supporting the bourgeois structure of
the world� (Vertov, 39). The mental patients at the asylum have not �recovered
their sight,� hence their articulated endorsements of pre-Revolutionary
suppositions. Moreover, such persistent emphasis on the �eye� is not exclusive
to the aesthetic intertextuality of Kino-Glaz and becomes increasingly
prevalent in Man with a Movie Camera.


Within the formal fabric of Man with the Movie Camera, the conception
of the camera lens as an enhancing supplement for the �imperfect human eye� is
visually epitomized within the shots depicting the superimposed eye on the
camera lens, which reflect the dark outline of the cameraman. This translates
into a multi-symbolic, visual representation of the processes rendered by the
cinematic apparatus � �proceeding from material to film object, and not from
film object to material� (Vertov, 39) � the lens, in assuming the role of the
eye, sees and captures the material world rather then constructing a fictive
representation in its form. The cameraman is reflected in the lens for he is
both an extension of Kino-Glaz and the material that is being transformed into
a film-object. The prevalence of the �eye� is further advocated within the
shot of a women applying mascara onto her left eye, which is framed in extreme
close-up; another close-up shot of the editor�s eyes looking down; and a
three-shot-sequence of the iris closing in on an image of the eyeball
superimposed onto the image of a camera lens.


Vertov suggested that the creative procedure of restructuring �Life-As-It-Is�
footage within the parameters of montage editing �could capture the fleeting
moments of reality that otherwise escape observation� (qtd. in Petric, 4).
This implies a number of pertinent notions to the contemplation of �seeing.�
Within the cinematic rhetoric � as it was envisioned by Dziga Vertov � while
the relation between the material world and the process of perception must be
immediate and direct, it is entirely dependent on the filmmaker of the
�unplayed film� (the contemporary Soviet term of the documentary genre) to
make the images �visible� to the spectator. Through the creative process of
montage editing, the filmmaker draws attention to the �ordinary� by
penetrating through its mundane periphery and revealing the profundity of its
underlying dimension. A flock of birds flying up to, and settling on, a roof
that they synonymously identified as a deserving resting place; a group of
pigeons congregating on the ground of an empty park; a large flock of birds
arriving and situating themselves amongst the previously assembled group on
the roof. The subtle beauty of these seemingly insignificant occurrences might
have escaped one�s attention had they not been dynamically captured within the
intertextual composition of Man with a Movie Camera. More specifically,
this sequence is comprised of three consecutive shots within the portion of
the film, which can be thematically categorized as the �awakening city.�


 In the introduction to Kino-Eye: The Writings of Dziga Vertov,
Annette Michelson suggests that in his work, Vertov reflectively explored the
dynamics of consciousness while sustaining �the method and energies of both
constructivism and Marxism� (xxii). Constructivist fascination with technology
manifested itself in the conception of the artist as an �engineer,� who
constructs �useful objects� by actively participating in the development of a
new society (Petric, 5). Under this umbrella of influence, Vertov conceived of
his films as �buildings� constructed of strategically arranged units (shots)
and specific �architectural� processes (shooting techniques) (Petric, vii).
Constructivists considered the cinematic medium to be the most effective means
of educating the masses and they exploited its capacities for two dominant
purposes. The first purpose was, �to assert the technological revolution and
environmental transformation by replacing the bourgeois mentality with a
socialist consciousness� (Petric, 5). The second purpose for the
constructivist employment of the cinematic medium was �to emancipate art by
focusing on the needs and responsibilities of the emerging working class�
(Petric, 5).


An application of this ideological objective is a fundamental characteristic
in all of Vertov�s cinematic endeavors. His, Three Songs about Lenin:
Leader of the Oppressed Peoples of the World, epitomizes political
propaganda in its blatant endorsement of a leftist disposition. Within the
initial shot sequence, Vertov establishes the contextual basis of the first
one-third of the film. He instantaneously elevates the spectator onto the
realm of the �sentimental� by admitting him/her to the private grounds of
Lenin�s villa. The spectator is temporarily granted the permission to
voyeuristically impose on the life of a public figure under the condition that
she/he remains susceptible to its many ideological affects. Vertov�s
mobile-camera seems to glide though the dense air of the serine park before
the frame settles on an empty bench. With the assistance of a title-card, this
symbolic object is referentially placed outside Lenin�s window. Vertov
incorporates still-photography with an archival image of Lenin sitting on the
same park-bench. This shot is intercut with a long-take of the empty bench.
The insistence on the significance of this object is achieved through its
prolonged visual depiction. The viewer is taught to perceive the park-bench as
a historical marker due to its sheer connection to the glorified figure of
Lenin; reciprocally, the process of glorification of his figure is perpetuated
through the film�s formal and stylistic discourses.


The Realist Manifesto (1922), disclosed by Naum Gabo and Antonin
Pevsner, encompasses a formal articulation of the constructivist theories. It
proposed that �art is the realization of our spatial perception of the world�
(Petric, 5). As it pertains to the question of �seeing,� this statement
implies a direct and unmediated correlation between one�s perceptible
�reality� and �art.� The spatial conception of the world is �realized� through
its re-formalization into an artistic form. When analyzed in conjunction with
the constructivist goals this notion allows for an interpretation of their
theory that carries dangerous implications. Since one�s physical world is
interpreted through cinema, a manipulated representation of that spatiality �
achieved for propagandistic purposes � produces a deluded conception of
her/his �reality.� However, rather then interpreting this quality as being
detrimental, Vertov emphatically promoted a desire to create a �film-object�
of �high propagandistic pressure,� that would be filled with �science,
education, and every-day life� (Vertov, 48). He considered the frivolous
dramas of the bourgeoisie to be �cinema-vodka� � selfishly produced and
distributed for profit. Kino-Glaz, on the other hand, operated through the
contextualization of �fact� and the �relegation of �art� to the periphery of
our consciousness� (Vertov, 49). This emphasis on �fact� characterized the
fundamental rationale behind the use of propaganda; considering that Kino-Glaz
reveals �film truth,� its affects are deemed enlightening rather then
manipulative.


Constructivist aspirations for a modernized, mechanically progressive society
extended to include a longing for a new �man.� Dziga Vertov declared, �Our
artistic vision departs from the working citizen and continues through the
poetry of the machine towards a perfect electrical man� (Petric, 6). This
romanticized vision of the �perfect man� as a mechanic, super-human robot
signals to the constructivist re-examination of humanism entirely. In
consistency with this line of reasoning, its conceivable progression might
include the supplementation of the inadequacies of the human sight with the
superior optical abilities of the �electrical man,� in the form of Kino-Glaz.
In one of his published articles, Vertov wrote �I am kino-eye, I create a man
more perfect than Adam, I create thousands of different people in accordance
with preliminary blueprints and diagrams of different kinds� (17).


Dziga Vertov instructed the �kinok-engeneers,� a group of collaborators with
whom Dziga Vertov surrounded himself, to employ her/his camera as an
�omnipotent eye,� to reformulate the visible world by exposing processes that
are inaccessible to the naked eye (Petri, 4). These processes are revealed
through the �montage way of seeing,� which involves the capturing of movements
comprised of dynamic and complex combinations (Petri, 4). This notion suggests
that the mechanics of seeing �life as it is� is contingent on the perception
of the world as a sequence of dielectric movements of montage, directly
dependent on the constringency of the filmmaker. In Evolution of Style: In
the Early work of Dziga Vertov, Seth R. Feldman addresses the connections
between Dziga Vertov�s approach to documentary aesthetics and the process of
visual decoding. He suggests that the formulaic mechanisms are applied by
breaking down and editing perception itself (Feldman, 37). �The �Cinema-Eye�
worked so well in finding the basic units of perception that acting in front
of it was pointless� (Feldman, 37). Therefore, the editing techniques were the
central mechanism in the construction of Vertov�s cinematic vision. 


Dziga Vertov declared that, �My path leads to the creation of a fresh
perception of the world� I can thus decipher the world that you do not know�
(qtd. in Roberts, 42). Upon consideration of this statement, it becomes
apparent that Vertov ambitiously searched for a path to a �fresh� conception
of the world that involved an active process of decipherment. This process
functions through an assimilation of a set of formal codes. By manipulating
their form and function, Dziga Vertov revolutionized and redirected the course
of the cinematic apparatus. He attempted to find a balance between
authenticity of recorded material and their aesthetic reconstruction,
consequently achieving a dialectical synthesis (Petric, 8). Within the formal
composition of his films, Vertov employs the techniques of �associative
editing� and �symbolic intercutting� for the injection of personal commentary
on the recorded �life-facts� (Petric, 82). More specifically, these cinematic
devices include: �slow, accelerated, and reverse motion, superimposition,
pixilation, overlapping, jump cuts, leitmotifs, and various other montage
techniques (Petric, 84). By calculatedly reconstructing the �Life-As-It-Is�
footage, Vertov induced its visual codes with an idealistic perspective that
the viewer was encouraged to adopt.


Associative editing and symbolic inercutting communicate metaphorical
implications through the juxtaposition of seemingly unrelated shots, which
involve an active process within the minds of the spectator. An example of
associative editing becomes evident in Three Songs about Lenin: Leader of
the Oppressed Peoples of the World, during the shot sequences of Lenin�s
funeral. An archival footage of Lenin delivering a passionate speech at a
podium is disrupted by a cut leading to a shot of his motionless body laying
in a casket. This oppositional depiction of Lenin�s physical states emphasizes
the tragedy of his passing and the detrimental implications of this loss are
mentally inferred by the viewers themselves. A number of conclusive sequences
of the film, present the ceremonious demonstrations of Leninist supporters who
are physically arranged in the configuration of the Soviet star. This
aesthetically striking composition is intercut with images of flowers
blooming, which is commonly interpreted as the symbols of hope. This symbolic
intercutting implies the perseverance of Lenin�s legacy despite his physical
demise. Another set of examples of these editing techniques become evident
within Man with the Movie Camera. A shot of a woman washing her face is
rapidly disrupted by a shot of a fire hydrant being hosed down, which implies
a level of correlation between the two events. This is also apparent within
the �Venetian blinds� sequence. The action of a woman blinking is paralleled
to the rapid movement of the blinds, which � through the process of pixilation
� are made to strikingly resemble the rhythm and speed of her blinking. On the
thematic level, this example of the utilization of associative editing
functions to emphasize the congruousness of human actions with mechanized
processes.


Associative editing can be interpreted as the cinematic equivalent of the
�dialectical unity of opposites,� described by Friedrich Engels as,




The two poles of an antithesis, like positive and negative, are
just as inseparable from one another as they are opposite�Despite all of their
opposition, they mutually penetrate each other�Dialectics grasp things and
their images, ideas, essentially in their interconnection, in their sequence,
their movement, their birth and death (qtd. in Petric, 98).


 


Furthermore, his films constantly unveil representational techniques though
�self-referential association� (Petric, 83). In addition to demystifying the
medium and enlightening the spectator about filmmaking practices, its
self-referential processes stimulate spontaneous responses within the viewer,
which lead to their contemplation on the intricacies of human perception. By
�baring the device� (Petric, 84), and decoding the cinematic apparatus, Vertov
metaphorically emancipates the viewer from the constraints of her/his optical
and conceptual obscurity. The very premise of Man with a Movie Camera
is self-referential, hence the recurrent mobilization on this technique.
In the opening sequence of the film prevails an explicit emphasis on the
instrument of the cinematic apparatus, in the form of a giant camera, on top
of which, a miniature cameraman is seen operating another camera. The
technicalities behind the operation of a projector are exposed through the
sequences of the projectionist installing the film reel. Another example of a
self-referential technique becomes apparent within the memorable shot sequence
of the cameraman filming while lying on the ground of a busy street. The first
shot dynamically depicts the feet of workers walking over the frame and the
rolling of wheels past and over its parameters, which constructs an optical
illusion of the viewer being as small as an insect. The next shot revealed the
practicalities involved in the formation of this composition, as it depicted
the cameraman lying on his stomach and capturing the oncoming workers with his
camera.


Vertov�s writings on Kino-Glaz, published on April 10, 1923, provocatively
encompassed some of his views on the role of the Kino-Glaz as the �builder� of
the perceivable world through various �film-phrases.� Written in the first
person, from the perspective of the camera itself, an excerpt of the article
states:




I am kino-eye. I am a builder. I have placed you, who I�ve
created today, in an extraordinary room which did not exist until just now
when I also created it. In this room there are twelve walls shot by me in
various parts of the world. In binging together shot of walls and details,
I�ve managed to arrange them in an order that is pleasing and to construct
with intervals, correctly, a film-phrase which is the room (Vertov, 17).



 


This excerpt suggests that Dziga Vertov regarded Kino-eye as a mechanical
�builder� of perceptibility that functioned by �constructing� and �arranging�
film-phrases into a dynamic synthesis within the �unplayed films.� The
�extraordinary room� can be interpreted as a metaphorical equivalent to the
spectators� conceptions of the perceived world, which Vertov formally
disassembled and reconstructed, through the radical mobilization of his
revolutionary editing techniques; consequently, placing under scrutiny the
notion of �seeing� itself. This paper examined the connection between the
spontaneous decipherment of visual codes in the process of seeing and Dziga
Vertov�s approach to the visual sphere of the cinematic apparatus. This focus
was approached through the consideration of the theoretical implications of
�Kino-Glaz,� in conjunction with textual readings of relevant sequences from
Vertov�s films. Throughout the process of writing this paper, it became
increasingly apparent that an analysis of Vertov�s techniques and provocative
manifestos becomes enriched through the contemplation on both, the doctrines
that he advocated and those that he denied. His rejection of conventional
techniques of representation manifested itself in a refusal to adapt the
bourgeois methods of production along with the denial of its hierarchal
division of labour and the employment of directors or set designers. In his
�mighty film-battle� (Vertov, 39), Vertov renounced the convenience of
studios, sets, make up and costumes. Vertov illustrated a dialectical and
materialist understanding of filmmaking, which denied illusion and fa�ade. He
wrote, �I am kino-eye. I am mechanical eye. I, a machine, show you the worlds
as only I can see it� (17). The pertinence of this statement and many others
concocted by Vertov, lays in their pervasive reflection on what it means to
�see� and the role of the cinematic apparatus in the �mechanics of seeing.�


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


 


Works Cited


Feldman, Seth R. Evolution of Style in the Early Work of Dziga Vertov, with
a New Appendix. New York: Arno P, 1977.


Kino-Eye. Dir. Dziga Vertov. Perf. Soviet people. Videocassette.
Goskino, 1924.


Man with a Movie Camera. Dir. Dziga Vertov. Perf.
Mikhail Kaufman, Elizaveta Svilova. Videocassette. VUFKU, 1929.


Petric, Vlada. Constructivism in Film: "The Man with the Movie Camera" a
Cinematic Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987.


Roberts, Graham. The Man with the Movie Camera. London, New York: I.B.
Tauris, 2000.


There Songs About Lenin: Leader of the Oppressed Peoples of the World.
Dir. Dziga Vertov. Perf. Lenin, Vladimir. Videocassette. Mezhrabpom-Rus
Studio, 1934


Tsivian, Yuri, ed. Lines of Resistance: Dziga Vertov and the Twenties.
Trans. Julian Graffy. Gemona, Udine: Le Giornate Del Cinema Muto, 2004.


Vertov, Dziga. Kino-Eye: the Writings of Dziga Vertov. Ed. Annette
Michelson. Trans. Kevin O�Brien. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of
California P, 1984.

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Dziga Vertov and the Mechanics of Seeing

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