One of the first concepts we had to digest was that violence is not dependent on mere numbers or opinions, but on implements (LC1). Violence can not be destroyed by power, because “out of the barrel of the gun, grows the most effective command, resulting in most instant and perfect obedience” (LC1). These notions suggest that despite the immense volume of opposition, the individual or party that is “holding the gun” processes control, which demands obedience.

Upon her recognition of the dramatic inference of violence, a German philosopher by the name of Hannah Arecht, established the concept of four characteristics of violence, which include: dramatic quality, implementality, instrumentality, and destructiveness (LC1). In attempting to fully grasp her philosophical approach, it is important to distinguish the difference between implementality and instrumentality. Violence in itself is instrumental, while the means though which you bring it about is implemental (LC1). Due to the fact that violence by nature is instrumental, and it always needs justification for its existence, it is never essential in itself, for it is unnecessary to explain or justify that which is essential (LC1). Moreover, in order to comprehend the rationale behind the existence of violence, one must consider the full sphere of its function and condition, including its socio-political contexts, and some of its possible provocations.

Severino João Albuquerque incisively analyses violence in Latin American theatre within, Violent Acts: A Study of Violence in Contemporary Latin American Theatre, which addresses the period from the 1950s through the 1980s (LC1). This book examines various aspects of violence by reflecting on a number of selected plays, which he felt best conveyed the themes of social injustice, political repression, institutionalization of torture, and tendencies to brutalize the innocent (LC1). Its study of verbal an nonverbal violence contributes to a more rounded understanding of Latin American theatre’s use of violence as an ‘instrument of protest” (Albuquerque, 271). The interplay between verbal and nonverbal violence, in Latin American theatre, is crucial to the dramatic presentation of the dynamic between victimizers and victims (Albuquerque, 271).

In his exploration of verbal violence, Albuquerque identified some of the features of verbal language as: displacement, productivity, double articulation and multimodality, which allow us to express the thoughts we have and to think abstractly (Albuquerque, 29). According to Roger Fowler, displacement assists us in “symbolizing objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication” (Albuquerque, 29). Productivity represents unlimited number of messages that are signaled (Albuquerque, 29). Duality of patterning, or double articulation, refers to the various semantic and phonetic levels of organizations (Albuquerque, 29). Multimodality, on the other hand, refers to those verbal expressions that are negative, imperative, exclamatory, indicative, and interrogative (Albuquerque, 29).

Albuquerque held the notion that verbal language processes the power of the conveying of experience, and the passing of traditions (Albuquerque, 30). Moreover, John L. Austin defines the destinations between the terms: locution, illocution, and perlocution. Locution refers to the act of speech itself, while illocution is distinguished by the “uttering of a sentence as an act in itself” (Albuquerque, 30). Perlocution defines words that are used successfully enough to stimulate a responding action in another person, which may be intentional or unintentional (Albuquerque, 30). Verbal violence can be easily communicated in the theatre because it has a distinct addressee. It can be directed towards the audience, the reader, or another character in the play. The term violative, refers to the “nature, character, or quality of violence, or the… tendency towards violence” (Albuquerque, 30), which refers to utterances and words that can imply or suggest violence.

Stanage separates violarives into eight categories, which include: abusives, provocatives and threatives, reportives, nonsensives, bombardives, distortives, and torturives. Abusives exemplify offensive language used in Latin American theatre. The fact that playwrights have “such an awareness of obscene language reflects a foregrounding of verbal language over the other elements of dramatic text” (Albuquerque, 35). The term, provocatives, refers to verbal insults and humiliating comments made by characters, with the intention to emotionally disturb another, while threatives are used with an intention to terrorize or intimidate (Albuquerque, 39). Reportives are accounts of the reporter of violence that explain what has occurred, not only to him/her, as an individual, but on a collective level as well (Albuquerque, 45).

Nonsensives are often depicted in absurdist plays, which present language that has been stripped of its original meaning (Albuquerque, 51). These plays illustrate meaninglessness, repetition, role-playing and lack of communication, which the absurdist playwrights believe, is a reflection of our society (Albuquerque, 51). Constant futile dueling between characters intensifies the notion of vicious repetitive patterns (Albuquerque, 51). Jorge Diaz, who is a famous Latin American playwright of the absurd, suggested that, “The characters victimize language by voiding its meaning, disarticulating utterances, and reducing them to absurdities, destroying its communicative processes, duplicating yet ridiculing verbal conversation, which have become so stereotyped that they have lost all meaning” (Albuquerque, 52). Some of the devices used in absurdist theatre are: negative comments that are completely devoid of any relevance, proverbs that make no sense within the context of the dialog, and the employment of pointless slogans from television commercials. This notion reminds me of the play, “End Game”, by Becket, a picture of which is illustrated below.

In this play, “the shock value of traditional language seems insufficient” (Albuquerque, 53), and its characters deconstruct the conventional notion of language through the abandonment of its formal elements, and an employment of rhythmic repetition which possesses both, complete idiocy on its surface, and insightful undercurrents at its depth.

Bombardives are exemplified in long segments of text as a way of overloading other characters and the reader with excess information or sheer mass of language. It is used as a technique of making the referential function of those passages lose importance, as it usually fades out from attention, consequently leading to the tension between the emotive and conative functions becoming a primary concern (Albuquerque, 57). Some of the examples of its use can be found in such plays as: Apareceu a Margarida, O assaulto, and Flores de papel. Distortives, on the other hand, are not directed at other characters or the audience and do not involve different kinds of reports of violent situations, but are rather language in themselves (Albuquerque, 59). There are two types of distortives, attempts to give new names to animals, people, or things, and the rejection of literal aspects, which represent metaphoric quality or symbolic aspect of language (Albuquerque, 60). The term, torturives refers the portrayal of the extreme form of violence that is torture, which is often more compelling in theatre, thorough its implications, as opposed to its gruesome live depiction, as is illustrated in the last picture (Albuquerque, 65). Verbal violence in these plays is also carried in the side text, which includes the stage directions, the dramatic personae, indications of entrances and exits, and titles and numbers of acts and scenes (Albuquerque, 68).

Albuquerque provides a definition for nonverbal communication, which refers to activity that is not verbal and is distinct from speech (Albuquerque, 72). Adam Kendon, suggests that the term nonverbal communication should be used when referring to “all of the ways in which communication is effected between persons when in each other’s presence, by means other then words” (Albuquerque, 72). These means may include - facial expressions, variety of body movements, posture, spacing, and position orientation (Albuquerque, 72). The term nonverbal communication describes those messages that are implied by, or that may be inferred from, a person’s actions. Through the use of nonverbal communication on stage, there becomes an immense possibility for the presentation of subtext and the characters’ true desires; for that which is verbalized is less often as accurate as what the physical nuances suggest. To recreate violence requires one to situate it within an appropriate context and to place it within a specific location. Violence requires the understanding of the full sphere of its existence.

Furthermore, kinesics - which is the study of body movement, and proxemics – which is the investigation of the use of space and maintenance of distance in human interactions, greatly contributed to the exploration of theatrical communication (Albuquerque, 73). The methods of implementing violence on stage that do not include the actor, are visual and sound effects and stage props. The fact that the theatre involves many different methods of illustration and requires creative collaboration is an integral part of this imaginative synthesis, which can be a powerful tool for implementing change.

In the case of silences and pauses, nonverbal communication is dependent on verbal language to establish its limits. Ingarden suggested that, “in order to maintain an artistically and materially complete whole, the renouncing, in a pause or silence, of the linguistic mode of representation must be compensated by a strengthening of the expressive function (Albuquerque, 74). This implies that in order to find a theatrically compelling moment within the pause or silence on stage, the expressive function must be intensified by the actor.

Kowzan begins his study of kinesthetic signs (nonverbal communication created by the human body), with the consideration of facial expression, which he refers to as facial mime – because he believes that it is “the system of kinesthetic signs nearest to verbal expression” (Albuquerque, 80). Some of the examples of facial expressiveness are - the use of penetrating looks, fiery glances, and chilling stares, which may express a character’s anger at others (Albuquerque, 80). Make up can also be used as a major vehicle for the expression of violence. While make up may enhance the aesthetically positive aspects of a person, hide their flaws, and beautify one’s exterior, it can also be employed as a vehicle for the implementation of the opposite effect, which can be insulting or humiliating to a character.

In the evaluation of the role of masks and costumes, in relation to the portrayal of nonverbal violence, the question of mobility and immobility arises. In this instance, the term “mobility” defines the flexibility of an object or body part. Furthermore, in exploration of their mobility, facial expression is positioned on the one end of the spectrum as the most mobile, while mask is on the other end as the most immobile, and make up is somewhere in between (Albuquerque, 83).

In regard to consumes, Kowzan suggested that they are, “the most external and conventional means of defining the human individual” (Albuquerque, 84). In most plays of any period, consumes acted as immediate indicators of the character’s sex, profession social class, and age (Albuquerque, 84). It is also possible to tell a great deal about the character’s personality traits based on visual qualities of their appearance.

Kowzan held the belief that, “after the word and its written form, the gesture constitutes the richest and the most subtle means of expressing thoughts, i.e. the best developed systems of signs” (Albuquerque, 85).

Hand and arm gestures that signify violence, are intended to abuse, torture, assault, and provoke (Albuquerque, 86). Among various ways through which body movement can express violence in a theatrical setting, are signs that involve moving around onstage as well as signs derived out of posture, positioning, orientation of the actor’s body in relation to other actors, stage props, the audience, and setting (Albuquerque, 90). A character’s movement around the stage can significantly add to violence done to others. An example of posture being an indicator of a power struggle can be illustrated through an image of a father figure standing over his child with a straight back and his head down, which establishes an image of overpowering and dominating nature. Proxemic signs, which refer to the signs developed by a shift or adjustment in proximity between characters, also enhance expression of violence on stage (Albuquerque, 90). In exploration of stage props, the average person associates violence with a gun or a knife; however, playwrights are challenged to resort to more subtle and complex implementations of violence in the performance text (Albuquerque, 99). The reason for this is due to the fact that in a stage performance, the use of conventional weapons in a traditional way is likely to be less powerful then that of an object not identified with violence regularly (Albuquerque, 99). Kowzan suggested that although lighting is used “principally to make the other means of expression stand out, it can…have an autonomous semiological role” (Albuquerque, 105). A common use of lighting is the focus on the victim with an intensely bright light (Albuquerque, 105). Lighting is often used to direct the audience’s gaze upon an area of the stage where intimidation, interrogation, or torture sessions are depicted (Albuquerque, 105). Voice and sound – effects that are used in the expression of violence can be separated in two major categories: (1) those produced onstage and (2) those produced offstage (Albuquerque, 111). In the expression of violence, a stage designer or director often considers elements of décor, which enhance and compliment it. Since the onset of the Cuban Revolution, Latin America has experienced a heightened sociopolitical consciousness, which has inspired a greater level of dedication from the artists of every art form (Albuquerque, 269). Moreover, the theatre has played a significant role in the efforts to liberate and empower the masses. Some of the playwrights and directors committed to the pursuit of this cause, who have also proven to possess creativity, sincerity and passion are: Buenaventura, Benedetti, Carballido, Rascon Banda, Chaves Neto, Navajas Cortes, Gambaro, Wolff, Dias Gomes, Mariela Romero, Ricardo Monti, and Leilah Assuncao (Albuquerque, 269). Latin American theatre illustrates violence by interconnecting “forms of expression appropriate to present their reactions and views to the harsh economic, social, and political realities of their region ”, with the great influence of several European trends (Albuquerque, 270). These influential trends include Brechtian theory, and Antonin Artaud’s (an image of whom is illustrated below), Theatre of Cruelty” (LC1). The notion that the world is governed by irrationality translated into the abandonment of dramatic realism, and into the employment of a highly self–conscious art form (Albuquerque, 270). The development of theatrical craft in Latin America reflects the social, economic, and political inequalities within their society, which inevitably translated into violence in life and the theatre (Albuquerque, 270). Upon complete theoretical digestion of Albuquerque’s writing on verbal and nonverbal violence, the class was assigned the play, “Front Runners”, by Laura Robinson, which possesses the theme of extreme psychological and physical abuse, being inflicted on young Aboriginal children, by the school staff. In applying the concepts learned in Albuquerque’s text to the examination of violence in this play, we were able to employ his theories in a more practical manner. An example of a distortive, within Front Runners, is presented in act one, scene two, during the conversation between Young Williams and Young Charlie about their race. Young Charlie warns Young Williams about referring to the ‘white kids’ in a negative manner by saying that, “They’ll wash your mouth out and you know what? They like to use a wire brush, so no swearing, especially about white kids, and no talking Indian!” (Robinson, 10). This demonstrates an example of the distinct division between Aboriginal peoples and the whites. It also suggests that severe physical violence was inflicted upon those Aboriginal children who were caught speaking their own language, which exemplifies a distortive because, denying people the right to express themselves in their mother tongue, strips them of their tradition and identity. An example of the use of silences and pauses, in the depiction of nonverbal violence, is illustrated within the scene were the principle congratulates the boys for winning the race. He conducts himself in an inappropriate manner, which makes the boys feel uncomfortable and dominated. After the principle puts his hand on William’s shoulders and looks admiringly at his legs, (which can be interpreted as sexual abuse), the playwright makes reference to the fact that there is an uncomfortable silence (Robinson, 14). This silence presents the uneasy tension within the dynamic of their principle/student relationship, which is caused by the principle’s nonverbal, yet violently damaging behavior. In act two, scene seven, the audience discovers that the torch was awarded to a less deserving person then Charlie, due to the fact that they wanted someone who Canadians could identify with. This cruel mistreatment suggests that not only is the school abusive and unfair to the Aboriginal peoples, but the country as a whole is responsible for the violence inflicted on them. Moreover, when Rose tells Old Charlie that the principal used a hockey stick to beat her, to the point where she couldn’t have any children (Robinson, 44), we gain a clearer sense of the severity of the physical violence that was being addressed. Rose also refers to extreme violence in Africa, where those who were forced to join the army had to chop off the arms of a family member. This refers to the issue of violence on a more global and universal scale. Moreover, while learning to apply Albuquerque’s concepts was beneficial to the understanding of different types of violence, with the progression of our exploration into Latin American theatre, we also learned about some of its most influential figures. One of these figures was Augusto Boal, the founder of the Theatre of the Oppresses (LC2). Boal was highly influenced by Bertolt Brecht's revolutionary approach to theatre. Theatre of the Oppressed encouraged participation of the audience and created an environment of free-flowing exchange of ideas. It was an easily accessible and comprehensible theatre, with an emphasis on audience engagement, which designed to assist people in discovering ways to fight oppression (LC2). Through Forum Theatre, Boal enabled people to confront their daily predicaments and to find appropriate solutions. In bridging the separation between actors and spectators, the audience members were strongly encouraged to intervene by replacing the actors and presenting their own ideas. Thus the audience was transformed into becoming spect–actors who engaged in the self–empowering dialogue that translated into critical thinking (LC2). This type of interactive theatre was derived from the educational method developed by a Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire (LC2). He proposed that this approach to theatre was necessary in order to: gain consciousness of relevant social issues, to analyze both internal and external sources of oppression, to explore possible solutions to these problems in a group, and to make appropriate actions in changing the situation towards social justice (LC2).In 1971, after Boal was sent into exile, he continued his work in Argentine by developing Invisible Theatre, which created theatrical situations in public places while keeping the public oblivious to its theatrical nature (LC2). After being elected as a member of the city council in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Boal employed the theatre as a way of passing popular legislature, which was reffered to as Legislative Theatre (LC2). He used local traditions and began doing agit–prop theatre in most impoverished areas of Brazil (LC2). In Paris 1981, he began to hold workshops pertaining to what he reffered to as, “the cop in the head” (LC2). He suggested that one must acquire necessary skills for combating his/her internal police by the name of, “the rainbow of desire” (LC2). Since 1990, Boal had been affiliated with Deptford–based London Bubble, and his work inspired them to set up a theatre group, Cardboard Citizens (LC2). They spread the word at public events, performed to the homeless and recruited new members though workshops. Another two influential figures of Latin American theatre are Enrique Buenaventura, whose picture is illustrated above, and Sergio Corrieri. Buenaventura, who has directed Teatro Experimental de Cali, since 1955, approached theatre as a form beyond literary text, but rather as a synchronized transference of many languages (sound and movement), which was a rather controversial concept at the time (LC3). He held the belief that an identical reproduction of a play was impossible due to many of its permutable elements, such as the influence of an audience (LC3). Sergio Corrieri, the director of the renowned Escambray Group, also defied convention, when he decided that he wanted to experiment with another artistic public and discover a different mode of communication, then the traditional standards allowed (LC4). He began to take the theatre to the people, as opposed to waiting for the audiences to come to the theatre. He introduced the notion that it is possible to make theatre without accompaniment of material processions. Amazingly enough, over 35,000 people witnessed his theatre (LC4). Sergio Corrieri took his theatre to various locations, after conducting preliminary research, which would allow them to focus on the social issues of a particular area (LC4). His theatre troops assisted peasants in considering the profession of an actor, which was an unfathomable concept prior to their arrival (LC4).Furthermore, Flora Lauren, who is a prominent director of Cuba, was an actress of Studio Group and later began working with the Escambrai Group (LC4). She founded a theatre group in a small village. After selecting untrained people, of rural backgrounds, to be her actors, she discovered that they were incredibly reserved, awkward, easily distracted, and lacked the ability to memorize well (LC4). She began their training with elementary relaxation exercises, and though rigorous discipline, passion and talent, they became one of the most influential theatre groups (LC4).Some of the most prominent playwrights of Cuba include Abelardo Estorino, Carlos Felipe, and Virgilio Piñera, who was an incredible phenomenon of creativity and whose picture is illustrated above (LC4). With his adaptation of “Electra”, Virgilio Piñera became the first Latin American playwright to write an absurdist play (LC4).

In attempting to fully comprehend the role of art in Cuba, it becomes apparent that art was a tool of revolution. In 1966 there was an important theatrical movement in Cuba which was evoked out of a desire to produce theatre that represented social and political issues, which were relevant to, and appropriate for, the times (LC4).

This desire to make a change resulted in the surfacing of many questions in relation to theatre. What kind of theatre should be made? What kind of social behavior should artists have? How should this theatre be made? Cubans, as well as their theatre, were becoming increasingly critical about themselves and their environment, which was resulting in progress, maturity and growth (LC4). In 1967, the First National Seminar of Theatre was developed as a result of these questions (LC4). They proposed four commissions, (a) Asocial function of theatre, (b) Theatre and National culture, (c) National duty of culture, (d) Present situation of theatre (LC4). This seminar gave rise to a new approach to theatre. By holding the performances in immense public squares, the theatre became accessible to the masses and not only to the privileged elite. The stage became a way of implementing change and transfiguring their reality. By revolutionizing the theatre in this manner, they attempted to alter ideology of the people to benefit the collectivity (LC4). The revolution intended to say that each individual is important for the whole community (LC4). Some of Cuban art schools include the National School of Instruction of the Dramatic Act, which is strictly practical, the National School of Art, and the Superior School of Culture, which offers a six-year program in the study of dramatic arts, within the Faculty of Essenics Art (LC4).

“Arial”, by José Enrique Rodó, was an incredibly inspiring and compelling reading, which poetically addressed a number of highly insightful and philosophical notions. Within this work, Rodó voices concerns regarding the validity of North American education. He also addresses the importance of finding a sense of the ‘beautiful’ in life. His portrayal of North American life, as a vicious cycle fueled by consumerism, really penetrated my thoughts. I think that it might be more difficult for people born in North America to fully accept Rodo’s criticism of their values, due to the fact that they lack a point of reference to any other way of life. However, considering that I lived in Eastern Europe for twelve years, I have always been conscious of the fact that North American ideology is truly lacking in cultural and spiritual substance. I admire his focus on youth as the signifier of “light, love, and energy” (Rodo, 11), which holds the ability to revolutionize and transform the world from being completely devoted to Caliban, which is the materialistic impulse and a symbol of sensuality and simplicity, to that of Arial – the embodiment of the ‘mastery of reason’, ‘spirituality of civilization’, and ‘grace of intelligence’ (Rodo, 4).

Throughout the duration of this course we broadened our knowledge of Latin American theatre, and the role of violence within it, through an examination of numerous sources. Some these sources include: Hannah Arecht’s philosophic theories on the subject, Albuquerque’s incisive analyses of verbal and nonverbal violence in Latin American theatre, and influential figure such as: Augusto Boal, Enrique Buenaventura, and Sergio Corrieri. Some of the other sources are: class lectures on the theatre of Latin America, and the history of Cuban theatre, the Canadian play “Frontrunners”, and an inspiring book, “Ariel”. After a thorough analysis of these sources, I would have to agree with Rodo’s suggestion that Latin America processes an abundance of talent, wisdom, and culture, which the rest of the world is presently underestimating.

Bibliography

Book

Albuquerque, Severino J. Violent Acts: A Study of Violence in Contemporary Latin American Theatre. Wayne State UP, 1991. 29-271. Rodo, Jose E. Ariel. University of Texas P, 2003. 7-151.

Play

Robinson, Laura. Front Runners. 2001. 1-50. LectureSuarez, Patricia. "Introduction to Latin American Theatre." University of Toronto, Toronto. Fall 2005.

(LC1) Suarez, Patricia. "Augusto Boal." University of Toronto, Toronto. Fall 2005.

(LC2)Suarez, Patricia. "Latin American Theatre." University of Toronto, Toronto. Fall 2005.

(LC3)Suarez, Patricia. "History of Cuban Theatre." University of Toronto, Toronto. Fall 2005.

(LC4)Pictures http://www.queensu.ca/drama/jstephenson/DRAM202/endgame_ubc.jpg

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